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Information regarding the ways in which sex influences health in older age is inadequate. Indeed, surveillance data that includes sex and age-disaggregated data is limited with a lack of research on sex differences in the social determinants of health.

Current criticism focusses on reproductive health services where providers are too often concerned only with controlling women’s fertility. This has been reflected in poor communication of information, a lack of cultural sensitivity and dehumanising treatment which itself has affected women’s willingness to use the services.

Where there has been more considered attention to racial inequalities in health and healthcare, it has been argued that policy and practice approaches have lacked consistency and frequently served to stereotype and stigmatise minority ethnic communities.Identifying and implementing effective strategies to eliminate racial inequities in health status and care should be made an international priority.